Forensic Ballistics MSc

• Professor Peter Zioupos

The module will provide an understanding of the role and responsibilities of expert witnesses in domestic and international criminal and civil cases and how they can present their evidence to the court effectively. You will also apply knowledge gained in previous modules to strengthen arguments presented in expert witness reports.

• Role and legal responsibilities of the forensic expert
• Civil and criminal procedure rules
• Excellence in report and statement writing
• Presentation of evidence in court
• Preparation for examination-in-chief and cross-examination.

 

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• define the role and responsibilities of the expert witness,
• construct an effective expert witness report,
• develop the skills to present oral evidence in court effectively and respond successfully to cross-examination.

The module will provide an understanding of the principles of firearms design, forensic investigations involving firearms and the classification of firearms against the 1968 Firearms Act (as amended).

• Weapon design and performance
• Serial number restoration 
• Improvised and converted weapons
• Preservation and recording of evidence
• 1968 Firearms Act (as amended)
• Gun-shot residue Investigations
• Application of bullet and case matching in forensic investigations

 

On successful completion of the module the student should be able to:

• evaluate the component parts of small arms,
• critically assess the techniques employed during gunshot residue and firearms identification casework,
• appraise how the deactivation, reactivation and conversion of firearms is carried out,
• appraise the use the different sections of the 1968 Firearms Act (as amended) as applied to Forensic casework,
• critically assess how firearms investigations are carried out whilst ensuring all evidence is preserved.

To provide an understanding of the principles of internal, intermediate, external, terminal and wound ballistics and how they are used in forensic investigations.

• Internal ballistics
• Intermediate ballistics
• External ballistics
• Terminal ballistics
• Wound ballistics
• Fragmenting munitions
• Shotgun ballistics
• Hit probability and statistics

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• Investigate and assess the internal, intermediate and external ballistics of projectiles
• Review the factors that affect the relationship between projectiles and targets
• Evaluate the factors affecting wound ballistics.
• Critically assess those factors affecting the performance and ballistics of fragmenting munitions and shotguns

• Dr Hannah Moore

The module provides an understanding of the core responsibilities of evidence recording and collection at the crime scene, both in general and specifically related to operational constraints of a UK investigative context. You will also understand the operation of forensic and police investigators within the context of a major investigation.

• Construction of the forensic strategy
• Evidence selection and collection
• Scene photography
• Digital photography
• Sample integrity and contamination issues
• Assessment of evidence
• Packaging and transportation
• Scene reporting
• Handling intelligence – assessment and communication

 

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• analyse and evaluate various different strategies of major scene investigation to consider the various effects of different approaches,
• appraise the range of evidence collection and investigation techniques available to the crime scene investigator,
• describe and evaluate the relative merits of the range of systematic crime scene procedures vital to successful investigations,
• evaluate which of these procedures are appropriate to a particular crime scene and apply these procedures appropriately during a crime scene exercise,
• generate a crime scene report which objectively critiques the methodologies used and draws justified conclusions appropriate for the evidence,
• transfer theoretical and practical knowledge of evidence identification, recording and retrieval into the various roles of forensic specialists.

• Professor Peter Zioupos

To provide an understanding and experience of the disciplines underpinning critical evaluation of quantitative information applied within the Forensic Sciences.

• Experimental design
• Interpretation and assessment
• Effective framing & rebutting of arguments
• Problem solving
• Evidential types
• Use of relevant statistics for design & interpretation
• Courtroom statistics

The syllabus will follow the general course of a generic investigative process from the appropriate framing of a question to the critical interpretation of data and information. The appropriate use of data in well-constructed arguments will be considered in order to distinguish between fact, opinion and speculation.  Intellectual rigour will be challenged, and the ability to identify weakness in argument will be developed. Data will be examined for reliability and reproducibility with a focus on the distinct features of forensically related data.  Appropriate use of descriptive and hypothesis testing statistics will be practiced and the ‘prosecutor’s fallacy’ explored. Bayes’ Theorem will be considered and rehearsed through case studies.  

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• Recognise the fundamental features of effective experimental design
• Explain how confidence may be secured through effective reliability and reproducibility assessments
• Frame and defend an effective argument concerning quantitative information
• Apply appropriate statistics to forensic evidence for analysis and interpretation
• Explain the statistical processes to the layman
• Apply Bayes’ Theorem to forensic evidence

• Professor Keith Rogers

To undertake an independent and original investigation, normally experimentally or practically-based, relating to a specific area of the syllabus.

• Project planning
• Safety assessment
• Statistics
• Experimental design
• Library search techniques
• Web search techniques
• Technical writing

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• write a research project plan, with aims, objectives, risk assessment and time line (Gantt chart),
• identify novel areas of research and devise optimal experimental solutions to forensic related problems,
• investigate new and original forensic techniques investigation through the use of an experimental programme and illustrate how they may impact on criminal/civil investigation,
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of essential facts, concept, principles and theories relating to a specific area of forensic science or forensic engineering,
• combine information from different sources (journals, internet, interview, court proceedings etc.), whilst being aware of the possibility of bias.
• Identify and explain key issues and critically assess their value,
• evaluate the requirements of a specific test and design and construct appropriate experimental apparatus,
• critically evaluate the results of experimental work; especially in the light of other published work in that area should it be available,
• summarise their work in a 20,000 word thesis in a clear and concise fashion using appropriate presentation of data,
• describe the background of the project, justify the experimental procedures and present results at an oral examination.

• Peter Masters

The aim of Introductory Studies is to prepare students for their subsequent programme of study on the assessed modules. It is optional and carries a formal credit rating of zero, although a student’s understanding of the material covered may be tested as part of the assessments for the course modules. Students are advised to participate in Introductory Studies.

The emphasis in Introductory Studies is on fundamentals and subjects are covered at first-degree level. Topics include:


• chemistry,
• archaeology and anthropology,
• computing services and library briefings,
• materials engineering,
• study skills and research methods,
• maths (including statistics),
• physics.

On successful completion of this module students will be able to:

• revise, consolidate and expand their skill and knowledge base so that they can derive maximum benefit from the course.

To understand and evaluate the effect of projectile and blast impact on personnel, vehicles and structures and the material science governing available protection systems for a given threat.

•  Penetrating, blunt and blast injuries
•  Tissue simulants
•  Metallic and non-metallic armours
•  Analytical modelling
•  Numerical modelling
 

 

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

•  Evaluate available protection systems for a given threat
•  Assess potential wounding/injury/damage for a given threat
•  Apply testing and analytical methodologies for current/future projectile defeat

• Stephen Johnson

The aim of the C-IED Capability course is to educate industry, military and civilian MoD C-IED staff in the Counter IED/Threat systems with emphasis on supporting capabilities and technology.

Subjects covered will include:

• describe and explain the C-IED approach in accordance with JDP 3-65(AJP-3.15(A)),
• understand the development of IED threats based on historical perspective and how these have been countered (adversary tactics techniques and procedures and the philosophies and principles underpinning IEDD),
• technologies involved in C-IED across detect, neutralise, mitigate and exploit. Includes roles of ISTAR and ECM,
• how to advise senior and specialist staff on C-IED,
• the importance of ‘Understand’ and information management to maintain effectiveness,
• application of influence activities to C-IED,
• analysing adversary IED systems and identifying points of influence and effect. 

 

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• discuss the C-IED approach in accordance with Joint Doctrine Publication 3-65 (AJP-3.15(A)), 
• evaluate the benefit of C-IED activities (Predict, Pursue, Prevent, Detect, Neutralise and Mitigate and Exploit) with respect to Prepare the Force, Attack the Network and Defeat the Device,
• explain the technologies involved in C-IED,
• formulate a situation report to inform the ‘Understand’ function,
• explain the meaning of Influence Activity,
• plan the use of Airborne assets for ISTAR and ECM in support of C-IED,
• analyse the development of IED threats,
• recommend a strategy to counter an adversary’s IED/Threat systems.

• Dr Sarah Morris

The aim of this module is to develop knowledge and understanding of the processes involved in the investigation of digital crime. These include the investigation of crime, the seizure of digital evidence, the examination of seized devices, the construction of reports and knowledge of relevant law.

Indicative module content:

• background and introduction to digital forensic science,
• investigation of digital crime,
• planning and executing a search and seizure operation in the context of a digital crime based investigation,
• introduction to the tools and techniques used to examine digital evidence,
• reports and statements,
• relevant UK and European law.

On successful completion of this module a student will be able to:

• evaluate the impact of key concepts in digital forensic science and related legislation on the forensic workflow,
• create an effective search and seizure plan for a digital investigation,
• conduct a simple digital forensic examination,
• construct an appropriate report in respect of a digital crime investigation and examination,
• apply knowledge to act as a source of assistance and information in relation to digital evidence and crime.

To understand the effects of blast loading and how it interacts with structures and the environment, and the pros and cons of various software modelling tools.

• Introduction to structures
• Introduction to blast
• Testing methodology
• Environmental effects/considerations (urban vs non-urban)
• Mitigation methods
• Vehicle blast Blast injury
• Modelling tools

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• Assess the effects and consequences of blast on structures,
• Examine and evaluate the factors that affect blast loading,
• Demonstrate a critical awareness of the limitations of different modelling tools.

• Dr Dennis Braekmans
• Professor Andrew Shortland

The module will provide an understanding of the principles of forensic and scientific investigations into art objects.

• Introduction to the art world,
• collectors, auction houses and museums,
• object and material types: (stone, ceramic, glass, metal, pigment, organics),
• scientific versus art historical analysis,
• special considerations of sampling,
• quasi-non-destructive and non-destructive techniques,
• relative and absolute dating,
• provenancing.

• describe the basic functioning of the art market,
• demonstrate a critical awareness of the legal roles of various players and the part that science can play,
• critically assess the various scientific and non-scientific techniques,
• demonstrate an understanding of how sampling strategies are applied and which techniques are of most use,
• be able to apply their knowledge to specific investigation of art objects to successfully come to a reasoned and balanced conclusion.

• Stephen Johnson

The course covers fire dynamics and the characteristics of explosives, their effects on buildings and people and the physical effects that would be looked for in their investigation.

Indicative module content:  


• fire initiation,
• fire spread,
• gas, vapour and dust explosions,
• fire spread in solids,
• effects of fire on the human,
• condensed phase explosives and pyrotechnics,
• explosive effects,
• forensic examination of fires and explosions using visiting speakers from the fire service and commercial investigators,
• vehicle fires,
• explosives range demonstration and fire demonstration (weather permitting),
• laboratory practical,
• laboratory practical.

 

• Roland Wessling

To introduce the role of the forensic archaeologist within the context of major crime investigation, specifically in the UK. The module aims to describe and discuss all aspects of this role, including project design, wide area search techniques, grave location techniques, excavation, evidence recognition and handling, grave and scatter scene interpretation and the production of specialist reports for court.

• the development of Forensic Archaeology in both UK and international contexts
• perpetrator behaviour
• search and location
• grave digging practical
• principles of geophysics
• police search techniques
• cadaver dog use
• principles of surveying
• stratigraphy and recording
• scatter scenes
• scavenger behaviour
• assessing soils
• running a forensic excavation
• recording & planning

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• evaluate and critically assess the development of forensic archaeology and its current application on UK and international crime scenes
• identify the main techniques used in the location of buried objects and evaluate their usefulness in different terrains and against different target types
• recognise the importance of stratigraphy and be able to use simple archaeological recording techniques to accurately describe that stratigraphy and interpret how it might have been caused
• understand key aspects of soil characteristics and properties and their impact on both the archaeological record and the excavation techniques
• understand key concepts in forensic taphonomy and consider how these may affect the nature and response of human remains
• recognise the practical aspects of setting up a forensic excavation and their implications.

• Stephen Johnson

To provide an understanding of the principles and practical applications of the major forensic analytical techniques used in forensic intelligence and exploitation.

Indicative module content: 

• role of communication and information sharing, 
• the use of FORINT cells in long term policing strategy,
• exploitation and military intelligence,
• pattern analysis, geographic information systems (GIS) and mathematics in forensic intelligence,
• technical exploitation,
• forensic exploitation,
• planning and direction of forensic intelligence,
• collection, processing, production, management and dissemination of FORINT,
• forms of output and report from FORINT.

 

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• distinguish evidential types for use in court and for intelligence purposes,
• evaluate the levels and range of forensic exploitation techniques,
• manage and prioritise the exploitation of forensic intelligence derived from people, places and vehicles,
• critically assess how forensic intelligence interfaces with other intelligence sources,
• establish and maintain a FORINT exploitation policy within the frameworks of forensic best practice and the recognized intelligence cycle.

• Dr Nathalie Mai

The aim of the FIEED course is to educate forensic scientists, police, military and relevant supporting disciplines in the process of investigating an explosive device, scene of explosion or suspected production facility or hide. Students work up from scene processing and evidence recovery, through to selection of analytic techniques, production of witness statements and court hearings.

Indicative module content:

• explosive crime scenes,
• field detection of explosives,
• X-Ray and XRD methods of bulk detection,
• infrared and Raman spectroscopy of explosives,
• the Forensic Explosive Laboratory,
• NMR spectroscopy of explosives,
• mass spectrometry of explosives,
• chromatography of explosives,
• sampling techniques,
• evidence for explosive cases – a CPS perspective,
• Improvised Explosive Devices (IED),
• IEDs and Bomb scene management,
• investigation of pre-blast scenes and labs.

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• evaluate the methods available for the detection and analysis of explosives,
• distinguish between the types of improvised explosive device and assess the methods used to identify and investigate them,
• interpret the infrared, proton nuclear magnetic resonance and electron ionisation mass spectra of important explosive compounds ,
• evaluate the techniques available for the analysis of trace explosives,
• compare the relative importance of gas chromatography and reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography, and their associated detection systems, in explosives analysis,
• decide on a procedure for identifying an explosive compound and prepare a witness statement on its identification,
• analyse an explosive crime scene.

• Dr Nicholas Marquez-Grant

To provide a broad introduction to the subject, focusing on the role of the forensic anthropologist, human skeletal anatomy and the basic biological profile from human skeletal remains.

Day 1: Introduction to human skeletal anatomy, biomechanics, and forensic anthropology.

Day 2:  Bone and tooth identification and taphonomy.

Day 3: Human vs non-human bone; outdoor scatter scene.

Day 4: Biological profile estimation (age-at-death, sex, stature, ancestry).

Day 5: Analysis of a human skeleton.

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• Explain the role of the forensic anthropologist
• Learn about the human skeleton
• Recognise, name and accurately describe the bones of the human skeleton
• Distinguish human from non-human bones
• Estimate the sex, age-at-death, stature and ancestry of a skeleton
• Learn about some of the factors influencing decomposition

• Stephen Johnson

To present the fundamental principles of hazardous investigations including CBRN and to introduce techniques and working practices that promote risk management during a methodical investigation.

• Introduction to hazardous investigations – principles and practices
• Recognising a CBRN incident
• Understanding hazardous scenes, sites, and situations (operational to strategic)
• Management of hazardous scenes
• CBRN contamination as an evidence challenge
• Reporting on investigations
• Techniques and technologies for operating in hazardous environments

 

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• define the types of hazard that might be present at a crime scene, including those associated with an improvised CBRN device or military munition,
• discriminate between a range of systematic options for managing hazardous crime scenes, including CBRN-contaminated scenes,
• demonstrate critical thinking by planning and executing a time-bounded recovery task, prioritising items of greatest forensic value whilst considering  their admissibility into evidence based on possible contamination,
• discuss the range of forensic evidence that might be associated with each item recovered, and how the impact of any contamination may be mitigated or otherwise accommodated,
• prepare a crime scene report for a hazardous crime scene that objectively critiques the methodologies used on-scene and draws justified conclusions appropriate for the evidence recovered.

To provide an understanding of international heritage crime, the main players and the methods of both attacks and defence.

Indicative module content: 

• introduction to international heritage crime,
• specific legal ordinances of relevance, e.g. Hague Convention,
• culture and conflict areas,
• heritage assets during warfare,
• deliberate destruction of sites,
• cultural heritage as a terrorist weapon,
• looting,
• trafficking of illicit antiques,
• auction houses, dealers and collectors,
• ethics of collecting.



 

On successful completion of the module you will be able to:

• compare the main threats to international heritage,
• appraise the dangers of the destruction of trafficking of heritage across borders and the international bodies and laws designed to prevent this,
• critically assess research on the international heritage crime and create methods for combating the threat,
• evaluate how forensic strategies are applied in this field and critique their effectiveness
• be able to apply, summaries and evaluate their knowledge in writing a report about a specific case.

To practically apply learning from the International Heritage Crime module to a real time, operational environment with the added difficulties of the international component. 

Indicative module content: 

This is a 'wargame' or exercise environment in which students take the role of one of the key people advising and commenting on a UK based operation. It draws heavily on the content of the International Heritage Crime module, but teaches and examines other skills including:

• dealing with complex scenarios,
• limited and asymmetric intelligence,
• rapid changing situations,
• lethal and semi-lethal threats to personnel,
• conducting and responding to briefings

On successful completion of the module you will be able to:

• identify agencies involved in a international heritage crime operation,
• critically assess priorities for actions,
• select appropriate courses of action and appraise their success,
• create briefs for senior officials,
• respond to changing circumstances and judge new intelligence leads,
• evaluate the effectiveness of the overall strategy in the exercise,
• review and investigate other courses of action and assess their applicability.

The module shall provide an introduction to the principles of forensic investigations involving firearms and forensic investigations of projectile ballistics.

Indicative module content:

• introduction into weapon functioning and performance,
• introduction into ammunition construction and materials,
• introduction into bullet and case matching,
• provide an overview of the 1968 Firearms Act (as amended),
• introduction to internal and external ballistics,
• introduction to gunshot residue analysis.

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• assess and evaluate how small arms work and operate,
• appraise the science behind bullet/case matching,
• demonstrate a critical awareness of the construction of small arms ammunition,
• assess the use of the different sections of the 1968 Firearms Act (as amended),
• compare and contrast the science underpinning internal and external ballistics,
• evaluate the science behind gunshot residue analysis.

To understand the origins of stress and shock waves and apply experimental techniques and analysis to evaluate and interpret shock data.

• Introduction to wave maths (optional 2 hours at start of module)
• Introduction to stress waves and shock waves
• Use and interpretation of strain gauges and strain gauge data
• Foundations in modelling impact on simple structures
• Applications of shock (geology, mining, bio, material properties, detonics, weapons…)
• Practical experience of shock experimental set up, analysis and interpretation

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• Analyse the behaviour of stress and shock waves
• Evaluate strain gauge data
• Model blast and impact on simple structures
• Design an experiment to test and validate the effect of shock on a material

• Dr Sophie Beckett

This course provides an introduction to mass fatality incidents (MFI); their definition, categorisation, mitigation and management. It has a strong focus on disaster victim identification (DVI) but also covers more general effects, challenges, lessons learnt, management developments and, the return to normality following an MFI. In particular, the course considers the roles and responsibilities of the personnel involved in the DVI process, practical application of Interpol guidelines and DVI forms, planning and evaluation of temporary mortuary facilities and, DVI humanitarian assistance aspects of mass fatality incident response.

The course may be of interest to a wide range of professionals including; emergency planners, emergency response personnel (police, fire and ambulance), family liaison officers, accident investigators, NGO workers, forensic scientists, medical doctors, lawyers, and those involved in the investigation of missing persons.

 

• Introduction to mass fatality incidents (MFI); definitions, categorisations and history,
• MFI mitigation, response planning and management,
• disaster victim identification (DVI) process and challenges,
• roles and responsibilities of DVI personnel,
• role of INTERPOL with respect to MFI,
• needs of the bereaved and humanitarian assistance,
• potential personal impact of MFI on responders,
• case study examples,
• lessons learnt and management developments,
• UK and International perspectives,
• mock MFI scenarios,
• media involvement with, and impact on MFI.

 

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• demonstrate knowledge of key aspects of mass fatality incidents with respect to definitions, categorisations, mitigation and management,
• apply knowledge of previous mass fatality incidents to critically evaluate general effects, challenges, lessons learnt, management developments and the return to normality following a mass fatality, incident,
• demonstrate a critical awareness of; current best practice guidance for disaster victim identification (DVI), logistical and scientific challenges and, the roles and responsibilities of the personnel involved in the DVI process,
• recognise and explain the needs of the bereaved, best practice for humanitarian assistance and the potential impact of mass fatality incidents on responders,
• demonstrate effective communication, application of reasoning and, collaboration, through participation in a range of mock MFI scenarios.

• Roland Wessling

To provide an understanding of the principles and practical applications of radiographic imaging techniques used in forensic science.

• Physics of X-ray production and utilization
• Radiographic equipment and complimentary imaging modalities – computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound
• Analogue and digital image recording media
• Radiation protection and legislation
• Medical imaging techniques and their application in the forensic examination of human subjects; ballistic trauma, narcotics trafficking, abuse, assault, homicide,  unexplained sudden death, human identification.
• Virtopsy ® and the virtual post-mortem
• Radiographic techniques applied to art work and counterfeit objects
• Industrial radiographic techniques for engineering components including weapons, missiles and improvised explosive devices

On successful completion of the module you will be able to:

• explain the fundamental principles of a wide range of imaging techniques
• identify current ionising radiations regulations and interpret them so as to be able to apply appropriate radiation protection measures when employing radiographic imaging techniques
• list and critically assess the advantages and disadvantages of different imaging techniques and their use in the individualisation of human remains and characterisation of trauma and/or disease states
• list and critically analyse the advantages and disadvantages of imaging techniques and their use in the identification and characterisation of components and component failure
• practically apply appropriate imaging techniques for defined situations and interpret the results

• Professor David Lane

The module will provide an understanding of the trace physical evidence and its associated forensic examination.

• Trace evidence concepts, direct and indirect transfer, retention time, transfer diagrams
• Fibre and hair construction
• Fibre and hair microscopy for identification and comparison
• Fabric comparison and damage
• Glass construction and forensic examination
• Paint characterization
• Soil analysis
• Blood spatter
• Finger prints
• Marks as evidence

On successful completion of this module a student should be able to:

• investigate a wide range of physical evidence using the concept of ‘trace’ evidence
• project manage a systematic trace evidence search using appropriate detection and collection techniques  to recover trace evidence of different types,
• justify the categorisation of trace evidence by identifying and measuring their most important features using appropriate analytical techniques,
• assess the number and distributions of different types of trace evidence and use appropriate statistical techniques to compare samples and groups of samples,
• appraise different categories of trace evidence and synthesise a model for how trace evidence transfer has occurred,
• present a case for physical contact between two (or more) objects or persons using a transfer diagram,
• report on a trace evidence investigation in a clear and concise manner.

To provide an understanding of heritage crime in the UK and the methods and agencies to combat it. 

Indicative module content: 

• introduction to UK heritage assets,
• introduction to the main forms of crime committed against these assets,
• detailed discussion of threats and counter operations
• architectural theft of metals and other materials,
• unlawful metal detecting,
• wreck interference,
• criminal damage,
• off-roading,
• managing heritage assets,
• illicit cultural property (UK)
• burden of evidence and proof.



 

On successful completion of the module you will be able to:

• appraise the main threats to UK heritage,
• discriminate between the legal roles of various players and evaluate the part that forensics can play,
• critically assess the various methods for combating UK heritage crime, their successes and failures,
• interpret how forensic strategies are applied in this field and which techniques are of most use,
• be able to apply their knowledge to specific subject area of UK heritage crime to successfully come to a reasoned and balanced conclusion.

To practically apply learning from the UK Heritage Crime module to a real time, operational environment.

Indicative module content: 

This is a 'wargame' or exercise environment in which students take the role of one of the key people advising and commenting on a UK based operation. It draws heavily on the content of the UK Heritage Crime module, but teaches and examines other skills including:

• operational planning,
• rapid responses to changing intelligence,
• teamwork and individual leadership,
• how to conduct briefings, respond and critically assess briefings from others.

On successful completion of the module you will be able to:

• appraise roles within UK heritage crime operation,
• critically assess the various methods for combating UK heritage crime, their successes and failures,
• select appropriate courses of action and appraise their success,
• create briefs for senior officials
• assess and predict to changing circumstances and judge new intelligence leads,
• evaluate the effectiveness of the overall strategy in the exercise,
• review and investigate other courses of action and assess their applicability.